A HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIP

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< g

O _g-

A HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIP

Ji'J^OM THE SIXTH CENTURY B.C. TO THE END OF THE MIDDLE AGES

BY

JOHN EDWIN SANDYS, LiTT.D.,

FELLOW AND LECTURER OF ST JOHn's COLLEGE,

AND PUBLIC ORATOR IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE,

HON. LITT.D. DUBLIN

SEEN BY

PRESERVATION

SERVICES

DATE....y^^.^..>.

.^v>.:

CAMBRIDGE

AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 1903

S3

v./

Qtiid est aetas hommts, nisi ea memoria rerum veterum cum superiorum aetate contexitur?

Cicero, Orator, § 120.

I

PREFACE.

THE present work owes its origin to the fact that, some nine years ago, at the kind suggestion of my friend Professor Jebb, I was in\ated by the editor of Social England to prepare a brief survey of the History of Scholarship, which was included in the volumes published in 1896 and 1897. In course of time I formed a plan for a more comprehensive treatment of the History of Classical Scholarship in general, which should begin with its birth in the Athenian age, should trace its growth in the Alexandrian and Roman times, and then pass onwards, through the Middle Ages, to the Revival of Learning, and to the further developements in the study of the ancient Classics among the nations of Europe and in the English-speaking peoples across the seas. I was already familiar with the Outlines of the History of Classical Philology by Professor Gudeman of Philadelphia ; and I may add that, if, in place of the eighty pages of his carefully planned Outlines, the learned author of that work had produced a complete History on the same general lines, there might have been little need for any other work on the same subject in the English language. But, in the absence of any such Histor}-, it appeared to be worth my while to endeavour to meet this obvious want, and, a few years ago, my proposal to prepare a general History of Classical Scholarship was accepted by the Syndics of the University Press. My aim has been, so far as practicable, to produce a readable book, which might also serve as a work of reference. I confess that the work has grown under my hands to a far larger bulk than

PREFACE.

I had ever contemplated ; but, when I reflect that a German ' History of Classical Philology ', which does not go beyond the fourth century of our era, fills as many as 1900 large octavo pages, I am disposed to feel (like Warren Hastings) 'astounded at my moderation '. I had hoped to complete the whole of my task in a single volume, but this has proved impossible, owing mainly to the vast extent and the complexity of the literature connected with the history of classical learning in the West of Europe during the eight centuries of the Middle Ages. In studying this part of my subject, I have found myself compelled to struggle with a great array of texts, in various volumes of the Rolls Series., the Monumenta Germaniae Historica, and Migne's Patrologia Latina; and to master the contents of a multitude of scattered mono- graphs in French, German and Italian, as well as English, publi- cations. With these and other resources I have endeavoured to trace the later fortunes of the Latin Classics, to deal with all the more important indications of the mediaeval knowledge of Greek, and to give an outline of the Scholastic Philosophy. Without taking some account of the latter, it is impossible to have an adequate understanding of the literature of the Middle Ages. And it is a necessary part of my subject, in so far as it arose out of the study of translations of Greek texts, and was inextricably bound up with the successive stages in the gradual expansion of the mediaeval knowledge of the works of Aristotle. But, in tracing the general course of a form of philosophy, which, however valu- able as a kind of mental gymnastic, was on the whole unfavourable to the wide and liberal study of the great masterpieces of Classical Literature, I have mainly confined myself to the points of immediate contact with the History of Scholarship ; and thus (if I may give a new turn to a phrase in Seneca), quae philosophia futt, facta philologia esf^. In the work in general I have studied the History of Scholarship in connexion with the literary, and even, to some slight extent, the political history of each period. But the treat- ^ Ep. 108 § 23.

PREFACE.

ment of the principal personages portrayed in the course of the work has not been on any rigidly uniform scale. Thus, among the three great authors of far-reaching influence, who stand on the threshold of the Middle Ages, there is necessarily far less to be said about the personality of Priscian than about that of Boethius or of Cassiodorus. Many names of minor importance, which are only incidentally mentioned in the text, have been excluded from the final draft of the Index, and space has thus been found for the fuller treatment of more important names, such as those of Aristotle and Plato, Cicero and Virgil. The study of the subject will, I trust, be further facilitated by means of the twelve chrono- logical tables. A Hst of these will be found on page xi.

Of the twelve divisions of my subject (set forth on page 14), the first six are included in the present volume, which aims at being complete so far as it extends, and, in point of time, covers as many as nineteen of the twenty-five centuries, with which those divisions are concerned. In continuation of this work, I hope to produce, at no distant date, a separate volume on the Histor}' of Scholarship from the time of Petrarch to the present day. The first draft of a large part of that volume has already been pre- pared, and, in the Easter Vacation of last year, I was engaged in the further study of the literature of the Renaissance, as well as of certain portions of the Middle Ages, in the hospitable libraries of Florence. In the spring of the present year I visited the homes of mediaeval learning on the Lx)ire, and also studied the sculptured and the written memorials of the mediaeval system of education, which still sur\-ive as a visible embodiment of the influences that moulded the mind of John of Salisbury in 'the classic calm of Chartres '.

It is a pleasure to conclude this preface by offering the tribute of my thanks to all who in any way have helped towards the completion of what has unavoidably proved a very laborious undertaking. My gratitude is due, in the first place, to the Syndics of the University Press, and to the staff" of the same,

PREFACE.

not forgetting the ever-attentive Reader, who (besides more important corrections) has endeavoured to reduce the spelling of mediaeval names to a uniformity little dreamt of in the Middle Ages themselves. If, in the next place, I may here record my thanks to those under whose influence this volume has been prepared, I cannot forget the friend who (as I have stated in the opening words of this preface) gave the first impulse which led to the ultimate production of the present work. If, again, I may give a single example of all that I owe to two other scholars — one of whom I have happily known for forty years, the other, alas ! for too few — a hint from the late Lord Acton gave me my first clear impression of the erudition of Vincent of Beauvais ; a word from Professor Mayor set me at work on Joannes de Garlandia. Among the Fellows of Trinity, Dr Henry Jackson has been good enough to supply me with a clear statement of his views on Plato's Cratylus, and Mr James Duff has kindly tested and confirmed my opinion as to a point connected with the mediaeval study of Lucretius \ The College catalogues and other works of Dr James have brought to my knowledge not a few points of interest in the mediaeval manuscripts of Cambridge. 1 have thus been led to include among iho. facsimiles an autograph of Lan franc, an extract from a copy of the works of John of Salisbury, which once belonged to Becket, and the colophon of an early transcript of a translation by William of Moerbeke. Four of the facsitniles are here published for the first time. To Sir Edward Maunde Thompson, and to his publishers, Messrs Kegan Paul and Co., I am indebted for the use of five of the many facsimiles which adorn his well-known Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography. I have also borrowed two short extracts from the three hundred facsimiles in Chatelain's Paleographie des Classiques Latins, and one from those in Wattenbach and von Velsen's Exeinpla Codicum Graecorum. I have to thank the Registrary of the University for the use of a single illustra- 1 p. 51511. 3.

PREFACE.

tion (and the offer of more) from his important volume on the Care of Books ; and I gratefully recall the trouble taken on my behalf by the Librarian and the staff of the University' Library ; by the Librarians of Peterhouse, Gonville and Caius, Corpus Christi, Magdalene, and Trinity Colleges ; by the Librarian and Assistant Librarian of my own College ; and by one of my former pupils, Professor Rapson, of the British Museum. My debt to the published works of scholars at home and abroad is fully shown in the notes to the following pages.

J. E. SANDYS.

Merto.v House, Cambridge,

October, 1903.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

List of Illustrations ^tii

Titles of Certain Works of Referenxe . . . xv

Abbreviations xviii

Addenda and Corrigenda xviii

Outline of Principal Contents of pp. i — 650 . . xix

Index 651

Greek Index 672

■

CONSPECTUS OF CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES.

Greek Literature ore. page Latin Literature ^c. page

r. 840 — 300B.C 18 c. 300 — I B.C 166

c. 300 — I B.C 104 I— 300A.D 186

I — 30OA.D 262 300 — 60OA.D 204

300 — 6CXJA.D 340 600— ioooa.d 430

600 — IOOOA.D 378 1000 — 1200 A.D 496

1000— 1453 A.D 400 1200 — 1400 A.D 538

b2

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

(i) Scenes from the Schools of Athens, early in the fifth century B.C., from a vase-painting by Duris on a Cylix with red figures on a black ground, found at Caere in 1872 and now in the Berlin Antiquarium (no. 2285). Reproduced partly from the large coloured copy in Monumenti del InsHtuto, ix (1873), pi. 54, and partly from the small lithographed outline in the Archdologische Zeitung, xxxi (1874), i — 14. The central design is from the inside, the rest from the outside of the Cylix . . Frontispiece, described on p. 42

(2) Masks of Comedy and Tragedy, British Mttscum . . 51

(3) Seated figure of ' Aristotle '. Spada Palace, Koine . . 66

(4) From the earliest extant MS of the Phaedo of Plato ; Petrie papyrus in the British Aliiseum ......... 87

(5) Portrait of Alexander the Great ; on a silver tetradrachm of Lysimachus, king of Thrace. British Museum ....... 102

(6) Portraits of Ptolemy I and II, Founders of the Alexandrian Library ; on a gold octadrachm of Ptolemy II and Arsinoe II. British Museum 143

(7) Portrait of Eumenes II, Founder of the Pergamene Library; on a silver tetradrachm in the British Museum ..... 164

(8) From Codex Sangallensis 1394 (Century iv or v) of Virgil. St Gallen 185

(9) From Codex Laurentianus XLVi 7 (Century x) of Quintilian. Laurentian Library, Florence .......... 203

(10) From Codex Laurentianus LXiii 19 (Century x) of Livy. Laurentian Library, Florence .......... 236

(11) From the Biblical Commentary of Monte Cassino, written before 569 B.C. Monte Cassino ......... 260

(12) From the Codex Parisinus (914 A.D.) of Clemens Alexandrinus. Bibliotheque Nalionale, Paris . . . . . . . . 326

(13) From a Paris manuscript (1223 A. D.) of a student's copy of David th« Armenian's Commentary on Porphyry's Introduction to Aristotle's Categories. Bibliotheque Natio?iale, Paris . . . . . . . . 338

(14) Beginning of the last Dialogue in the Bodleian Plato (895 A. D.). Reproduced from a photograph taken from the Leyden Facsimile of the original MS in the Bodleian Library, Oxfot-d 376

I

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Xlll

( 1 5) End of Scholia on Hesiod's Works and Days by Manuel Moschopulus, in the handwriting of Demetrius Triclinius, finished on Aug. 20, hSiKTiwvoi IS', frovi ^S'ukS' (6824 A.M. of the Byzantine era= 1316 A.D.). Biblioteca Marciana, Venice .......... 428

(16) From Cambridge University MS (Century Xl) of /Elfric's Latin Grammar. Reproduced fi-om a photograph taken from the original in the University Library, Cambridge 495

(17) Specimens of Christ Church, Canterburj', hand (<r. 1070-84) from near the end of a MS of Decretals and Canons bought by Lanfranc from the abbey of Bee and given by him to Christ Church, Canterbury. The first of the two specimens is almost certainly in the hand-^rriting of Lanfranc: — Hujtc librum data precio emptum ego Lanfraneus archiepiscopus de Beccensi cenobio in Anglicam terram deferri feci et Ecclesiae Christi dedi. Si quis eum de iure prcufatae Ecclesiae ahstiilerit, anathema sit. The second is a copy of the first of five letters addressed to Lanfranc by the Antipope 'Clement III' (1084 — iioi), beginning Clemens episcopus, servus servorum Dei, Lanfranco Cantuar- beriensi archiepiscopo salutem el apostolicam benedictionem, and ending omnesque coepiscopos fratres nostras ex nostra parte saliita, et ad honorem et utilitatem sanctcu Romanae Ecclesiae studio santtitatis fraterne hcrtare (in line 4 there must be a lacuna after exoptamust. Reproduced from a photograph taken from the original in Trinity College Library, Cambridge . . . 503

(rS) From a MS of John of Salisbury's Policraticus and Metalogicus (i 159), formerly in the possession of Becket. Reproduced from a photograph taken from the original in the Library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge . 516

(19) Philosophy and the Liberal Arts, versus the Poets. From the Hortus Deliciarum of Herrad von Landsperg (d. 1 195), destroyed at Strassburg in 1870. The inscriptions are as follows. On the outer circle : — Haec cxercicia quae mundi philosophia \ investigavit, investigata notavit, \ scripto firmavit et alumnis insinttavit. j! Septem per studia docet artes philosophia. \ ffaec elementorum scrutatur et abdita rerum. ;: On the inner circle : — Arte regens omnia quae sunt ego philosophia \ subjectas artes in septem druido partes. Above the Seven Arts (Grammar with scopae). Per me quivis discit, vox, littera, syllaba, quid sit. (Rhetoric with stilus and tabula) Causarum vires per me, rhetor alme, requires. (Dialectic with caput cam's) Argumenta sino concurrere more canino. (Music with crganistrum, cithara and lira) Musica sum late doctrix artis variatae. (Arithmetic) Ex numeris consto, quorum discrimina /nonstro. (Geometry) Terra e men suras per mult as dirigo cur as. (Astronomy) Ex astris nomen traho, per qttae discitur omen. In the upper half of the inner circle : — Philosophia, with her triple crown of Ethiea, Logica and Physica, displays a band, bearing the inscription: — Omnis sapientia a Domino Deo est; soli quod desiderant facere possunt sapientes. Below this are the words : — Septem fontes sapientiae fltiunt de philosophia, quae dicuntur liberales artes. Spiritus Sanctus inventor est septem liberalium artium, quae sunt Grammatica, Rhetorica, Dialectica, Musica, Arithmetica, Geometria, Astronomia. In the lower half of the same circle and above the philosophi.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Socrates and Plato, runs the line: — Nattiram universae rei quern dociiit Philosophia. To the left of Socrates : — Philosophi primtim Ethica, postea Physica, deinde Rhetoricatti docuerunt, and to the right of Plato : — Philosophi sapientes 77iundi et gentitim clerici fuerunt. Outside and below the two circles are four Poetae vel Magi, spiritu immundo instincti, with the following ex- planation:— Isti imt?tundis spiritibus inspirati scribunt artem magicam et poetriam i.e. fabulosa commenta . . . . . . . . 537

(20) Altar-piece by Francesco Traini (1345) in the Church of S. Caterina, Pisa. From the ' Christ in Glory ' a single ray of light falls on each of the six figures of Moses and St Paul and the four Evangelists, here represented as bending forward from the sky, and holding tablets inscribed with passages from the books of the Scriptures which bear their names. In addition to the rays that proceed from each of these figures, three from the ' Christ in Glory ' may be seen descending on the head of the seated form of St Thomas Aquinas, who displays an open book with the first words of his Summa contra Gentiles: — Veritatetn meditabitur guttiir tneum, et labia mea detestabuntur impium (Proverbs, viii 7), while some of his other works are lying on his lap. The figure is stated by Vasari to have been copied from a portrait lent by the abbey of Fossanuova (North of Terracina), where Thomas Aquinas died in I ■274. Two other rays are represented as coming from the open books dis- played by Aristotle on the left and Plato on the right, and described by Vasari as the Ethics and Timaens respectively. Another ray, not a beam of illumina- tion, but a lightning-flash of refutation, falls from the Summa contra Gentiles, striking the edge of a book lying on the ground beside the writhing form of its author, Averroes. Many other rays may be seen descending from the several works of St Thomas on the two crowds of admiring and adoring Dominicans below. In the original, among the rays on the left, may be read the text, hie adinvenit omnem viam disciplinae (Baruch, iii 32), and, among those on the x\^\1, doctor gentium in fide etveritate (i Tim. ii 7). Cp. Vasari, Vite, Orgagna, ad fin., i 6i2f Milanesi; Ro%\m, Storia delta Pittura Italiana {i^^o),\\ 86f,93; Renan, Averroes, 305-8'*; Hettner, Italienische Studien (1879), 102-8; and Woltmann and Woermann, History of Painting, i 459 E.T. facing -p. 560

(21) Colophon of the 'Theological Elements' of Proclus, from a xiii century copy of the translation finished at Viterbo by William of Moerbeke, 18 May, 1268. Prodi Dyadochi Lycii, Platonici philosophi, elementatio theo- logtca explicit capitulis 211. Completa fuit translatio hujus opeiis Viterbii a

fratre G. de Morbecca ordinis fratritm praedicatorum xv KaUndas Junii Anfio Domini M^CC sexagesimo ociauo. Reproduced from a photograph taken from the original in Peterhouse Library, Cambridge 566

(22) Grammar and Priscian, from the figures of the Seven Liberal Arts and their ancient representatives in the right-hand doorway of the West Front of Chartres Cathedral ......... 645

For the sources from which this and certain of the other cuts are derived, see letterpress under the several cuts.

TITLES OF CERTAIN WORKS OF REFERENCE.

The following list is limited to those works of reference which are most frequently quoted in the present volume, either by the author's name alone, or by a much abbreviated title. It has no pretensions to being a complete bibliography of the subject, or indeed of any part of it. The leading authorities on all points of importance are cited in the notes, e.g. on pp. 504, 640. For the bibliography in general, the best book of reference is that of Hiibner, which is placed at the head of the list. In the case of literature later than 1889, this may be supplemented from other sources, such as Bursian's Jahresbericht, the Biblioth^ca Philologica Classica, and the summaries in the principal Classical periodicals of Europe or the United States of America.

HCTBNER, E. Bibliographie der klassischen Allerthttmswissenschaft ; Grundriss zu Vorlesttngen ilber die Geschichte und Encyklopadu der klassischen Philologie, ed. 2, 8vo, Berlin, 1889.

On the Athenian, Alexandrian or Roman Ages.

Christ, W. Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur bis auf die Zeit Jus- tinians (1889*, 1890*); ed. 3, pp. 944; large 8vo, Miinchen, 1898.

Croiset. Histoire de la Litterature Grecqite, in five vols. (1887-99), esp. vol. V pp. I — 314 {Periode Alexandrine) by Alfred Croiset; and pp. 315 — 1067 {Periode Romaine) by Maurice Croiset; 8vo, Paris, 1899.

Egger, E. £ssai stir F Histoire de la Critique chez les Grecs (1849); ed. 3, pp. 588; small 8vo, Paris, 1887.

GrafeN'HAN, a. Geschichte der klassischen Philologie im Alterthum, to 400A.D. ; four vols., pp. 1909; large 8vo, Bonn, 1843-50.

Nettleship, H. (i) Lectures and Essays on subjects connected -with Latin Literature and Scholarship, pp. 381; and (ii) Lectures and Essays, pp. ■269; crown 8vo, Oxford, 1885-95.

XVI TITLES OF CERTAIN WORKS OF REFERENCE.

Saintsbury, G. a History of Criticism and Literary Taste in Europe from the earliest texts to the present day, vol, I pp. xv + 499 (Classical and Mediaeval Criticism) ; 8vo, Edinburgh and London, 1900.

SCHANZ, M. Geschichie der Rdmischen Litteratur bis zum Gesetzgebung des Kaisers Justinian ; two editions of parts i and ii, in three vols., and one ed. of part iii, large 8vo, ending (at present) with 324 A.D. MUnchen, 1890 — 1901.

Steinthal, H. Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaft bei den Griechen und Romerti (1863), 2 vols. 8vo ; ed. 2, Berlin, 1890-r.

SusEMiHL, F. Geschichte der griechischen Litteraiur in der Alexandriner- zeit, two vols. 8vo, pp. 907 + 771; Leipzig, 1891-2.

Teuffel, W. S. History of Roman Literature (to about 800 A. D.), revised and enlarged by L. Schwabe, translated from the fifth German ed. (1890) by G. C. W. Warr, 2 vols. 8vo, pp. 577 + 615; London and Cambridge, 1900.

On the Middle Ages.

BURSIAN, C. Geschichte der classischen Philologie im Deutschland, 2 vols. 8vo, vol. I pp. I — 90, Munchen, 1883.

Cramer, < Joannes > Fredericus. De Graecis Medii Aevi Studiis, sc. De Graecis per Occidentem Studiis (i) usque ad Carolum Magnum, pp.44; (2) usque ad expeditiones in Terram Sanctatn susceptas, pp. 65 (the pages in both cases are those of the complete editions), small 4to pamphlets, Sundiae (Stralsund), 1849-53.

Ebert, a. Geschichte der Literatur des Mittelalters im Abendlande bis zum Beginne des XL Jahrhunderts; 3 vols. 8vo, 1874-87; ed. 2 of vol. i, Leipzig, 1889.

GiDEL, C. Les Etudes grecques eti Europe (fourth cent. — 1453), pp. i — 289 ol Nouvelles Etudes, 8vo, Paris, 1878.

Gradenigo, G. Ragionamento Lstorico-Critico intorno alia Letteratura Greco- Ltaliana, pp. 176, 8vo, Brescia, 1759.

Graf, Arturo. Ro7na nella Memoria e nelle Immaginazioni del Medio Evo, two vols, small 8vo; esp. vol. 11 153 — 367 (quoted in notes to pp. 606- 27); Torino, 1882-3.

Haur£au, B. La Philosophie Scolastique (1850); ed. 2, vols. I, and II (parts i and ii), 8vo, Paris, 1872-80.

Heeren, a. H. L. Geschichte der classischen Litteratur im Mittelalter, 2 vols, small 8vo; vol. I, Book i, pp. 10 — 170 (c. 330 — 900 A.D.) ; Book ii, pp. 171 — 376(900 — 1400 A.D.), Gottingen, 1822.

Histoire Literaire de la France, begun at Saint-Germain-des-Pres by the Benedictines of the Congregation of Saint-Maur (vols. I — xii, i7.',3-63); and continued, as the Hist. Litteraire etc. (vols, xiii — xxxil, 1814-98) by the Institut of France. (Victor Le Clerc's survey of cent, xiv in vol. xxiv i — 602 is quoted from the separate 8vo ed. of 1865.) 4to, Paris, 1733 — 1898.

JoURDAiN, Amable. Recherches critiques sur Pdge et Vorigine des traduc- tions latines d'Aristote, et sur les commentaires grecs ou arabes employes par les docteurs scolastiques (1819); ed. 2 (Charles Jourdain), 8vo, Paris, 1843.

I

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TITLES OF CERTAIN WORKS OF REFERENCE. xvil

KORTING, G. Die Anfange der Rencussance-litteratur in Italien, nominally vol. Ill but really introductory' to vols, i (Petrarch) and ii (Boccaccio) in the unfinished Geschichte der Litteratur Italietis im Zeitalter der Renaissance (1878-80); 8vo, Leipzig, 1884.

Krumbacher, K. Geschiehte der byzantinischen Litteratur von Justinian bis sum Efide des Ostromischen Reiches (527 — 1453 A.D.), ed. i, pp. 495, 1890; ed. 1, pp. 1 193; large 8vo, Miinchen, 1897.

Leyser, Polycarp (of Helmstadt). Historia Poetarum et Poematum Medii Aeii {400 — 1400A.D.), pp. 1 132; small 8vo, Halle, 1721 and (with new title- page) 1 741.

Maitland, S. R. The Dark Ages (1844), ed. 3; 8vo, London, 1853.

Maitre, Leon. Les £coles ilpiscopales et Monastiques (768 — 1180A.D.); 8vo, Paris, 1866.

MiGXE, L' Abbe J. P. Patrologiae Ctirsus Completus; Series Latina; 217 vols, royal 8vo, including a large part of the poetic, epistolary, historical and philosophical (as well as the ' patristic ') Latin literature of the 2000 years from Tertullian (d. 240) to Innocent III (d. 1216), Paris, 1844-55; followed by four vols, of Indices, 1862-4.

Monumenta Gernianiae Historica, folio series of Scriptores etc, edited by Pertz and others (Hanover), 1826-91; continued in quarto series, the latter including (for the later Roman Age) the best editions of Ausonius, Symmachus, Sidonius, and the Variae of Cassiodorus, and (for the Middle Ages) Gregory of Tours, the Letters of Gr^ory the Great, and the works of Venantius Fortunatus, with four vols, of Poetae Latini, vols, i and 11 edited by DUmmler, III by Traube, and iv i by Winterfeld. Berlin, 1877- (in progress).

MULLIXGER, J. B. The Schools of Charles the Great (quoted mainly in chap, xxv), pp. XX +193; 8vo, London, 1877.

MULLINGER, J. B. History of the University of Cambridge, vol. I, esp. pp. I — 212 (containing the introductory chapters on the Middle Ages); pp. 686; 8vo, Cambridge, 1873.

NoRDEN, E. Die Antike Kunstprosa vom VI Jahrhundert v. Chr. bis in die Z^it der Renaissance; two vols. 8vo, pp. 969; esp. pp. 657 — 763 {Das Mittelalter...). Leipzig, 1898.

PoOLE, Reginald Lane. Illustraticns of the History of Medieval Thought, pp. 376; 8vo, London, 1884.

Prantl, Carl von. Geschichte der Logik im Abendlande, esp. vol. il (1861) ; ed. 2, Leipzig, 1885; four vols. Leipzig, 1855-70.

Rashd\ll, Hastings. Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, vol. i, and II (in two Parts); 8vo, Oxford, 1895.

Renan, E. Aterroes et PAverroisme (1852); ed. 4; 8vo, pp. 486, Paris, 1882.

'Rolls Series' ; Re rum Britannicarum Medii Aez'i Scriptores, or Chronicles and Memorials of Great Britain and Ireland during the Middle Ages, published under the direction of the Master of the Rolls, 244 vols, royal 8vo. The vols, quoted are mainly those containing the works of WUliam of Malmesbury,

xviii ABBREVIATIONS. ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA.

Alexander Neckam, Giraldus Cambrensis, Grosseteste, Matthew Paris, Roger Bacon and the 'Satirical Latin Poets of cent, xii', i and ii. London, 1858-96.

TiRABOSCHi, G. Storia della Letteratura Italiana{&A. i, Modena, 1772- ); esp. vols. Ill — V (476-1400 A. D.) of ed. 2, Modena, 1787-94.

ToUGARD, L'Abbe A. V HelUnisme dans les £crivams du Moyen-Age du septihne au douzieme siecle, pp. 70; large Svo, Paris, 1886.

Ueberweg, F. Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophie, vol. I (1864); ed. 8 Heinze, 1894; E. T. London, 1872 etc.

Wattenbach, W. Das Schrift%vesen im Mittelalter (1871); ed. 2 (used in this vol.), 1875; ed. 3, Leipzig, 1896.

Wattenbach, W. Deutschlands Geschichtsqudlen im Mittelalter, ending c. 1250 (ed. I, 1858); ed. 6, Berlin, 1893-4.

The latest survey of Mediaeval Latin Literature from 550 to 1350 A. D. is to be found in Grober's Grundriss der Ro/naniscken Philoloi^ie, ii 97 — 432, Strassburg, 1902. That of Italy is very briefly sketched in Gaspary's //a/«a« Literature, i i — 49, E.T. 1901.

ABBREVIATIONS.

In the notes and index MA stands for Mittel- Alter, and for Middle Ages. A smaller numeral added to that of the volume or page, e.g., ii'^ or 123* denotes the edition to which reference is made.

ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA.

p. 249 1. 25 and n. 7; for Einsiedlen, read Einsiedeln.

p. 256 n. 3 1. 5; for 1800, read 1880.

p. 303, head-line; for aureli, read aurelius.

p. 334 n. 3 (Alexander of Aphrodisias on Aristotle De Sensu) ; add ed. Wendland (1901).

p. 342 n. I ; after Fotheringhani, add announced, but not yet published, n. 3; after E. H. Gifford, add published in 1903.

p. 346 n. 2; add Themistius on Aristotle, De Caelo, ed. Landauer (1902).

p. 365 n. 2 (Syrianus on the Metaphysics); add ed. Kroll (1902).

p. 403 n. 7 (Michael of Ephesus); add, on Ethics v, ed. Hayduck (1901).

p. 430 col. 4; add Ekkehard II d. 990; and, in col. 5, for 651-90 Aidan (where -90 is accidentally repeated from next item), read 651 d. Aidan.

p. 462 1. 2; for Osnabruck, read Osnabrlick, and see Index.

p. 465 1. 18; for (emp. Lothair) d. 869, read d. 855.

p. 507 n. 5 1. 3; for 1817, read 1819.

I

OUTLINE OF PRINCIPAL CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I. Definition of ' Scholar ' and * Scholarship ';' Scholarship ' and ' Philology '. ^X6\o7os, ypafi/iaTiKds, KpiriKhs. Modern ' Philology '. General plan of proposed work . . . . . . . i — 15

BOOK I. THE ATHENIAN AGE, .. 600— ^. 300 B.C. 17—102

Chronological Table, c. 840— 300 B.C. ... 18

CHAPTER II. The Study of Epic Poetry. Homer and the rhapsodes. Solon, Peisistratus and Hipparchus. Early interpolations. Influence of Homer on early Greek poets. Homer and the Sophists. All^orical inter- pretation of Homeric mythology. Homer in Plato, Aristophanes and Isocrates. Quotations from, and early 'editions' of. Homer. Aristotle on Homer. The Study of Hesiod, Antimachus and Choerilus . 19 — 40

CHAPTER III. The Study of Lyric Poetry. Plato on the study of poetry ; vase-painting by Duris. ' Lyric ' and ' melic ' poets. The study of the 'melic', elegiac, and iambic poets 41 — 51

CHAPTER IV. The Study and Criticism of Dramatic Poetry. Literary criticism in Attic Comedy. The text of the Tragic Poets. Quotations from the dramatists. Dramatic criticism in Plato and Aristotle . . 52 — 66

CH.A.PTER V. The theory of poetry in Homer, Democritus, Plato and Aristotle. Aristotle's treatise on Poetry ..... 67 — 75

CHAPTER VI. The Rise of Rhetoric, and the Study of Prose. Plato's Gorgias and Phaedrus. Aristotle's Rhetoric. Aristotle's relations to Isocrates and Demosthenes. Literarj- criticism a branch of Rhetoric. Place of Prose in Athenian education. Early transmission of the works of Plato and Aristotle. Libraries in the Athenian age 76 — 87

CHAPTER VII. (i) The Beginnings of Grammar and Etymology. Early speculations on the origin of language. Plato's Cratyhis, Grammar in Aristotle. (2) History and Criticism of Literature in the Peripatetic School. Theophrastus, Praxiphanes and Demetrius of Phaleron 88 — 102

OUTLINE OF PRINCIPAL CONTENTS.

BOOK II. THE ALEXANDRIAN AGE, f. 300— I B.C. 103-164 Chronological Table, 300 — i B.C. . . . 104

CHAPTER VIII. The School of Alexandria. The Library and the Librarians..'' Philetas. Zenodotus. Alexander Aetolus. Lycophron. Calli- machus. Eratosthenes. Aristophanes of Byzantium. Aristarchus. Calli- stratus. Hermippus. ApoUodorus of Athens. Ammonius. Dionysius Thrax. Tyrannion. Didymus 105 — 143

CHAPTER IX. The Stoics and the School of Pergamon. The Grammar of the Stoics. The Pergamene Library. Polemon of Ilium. Demetrius of Scepsis. Crates of Mallos. Pergamon and Rome . . . 144 — 164

BOOK III. THE ROMAN AGE OF LATIN

SCHOLARSHIP, c. 168 B.C.—^. 530 A. D. . 165—260

Chronological Table, 300^1 B.C. . . . 166

CHAPTER X. Latin Scholarship from the death of Ennius (169 B.C.) to the Augustan Age. Greek influence before 169 B.C. The battle of Pydna and Crates of Mallos (168 B.C.). Accius. Lucilius. Aelius Stilo. Varro. 'Analogy' and 'Anomaly' from Varro to Quintilian. Literary Criticism in Varro, Cicero and Pollio. Atticus and Tiro. Nigidius Figulus. L. Ateius Praetextatus. Valerius Cato. Grammatical Terminology. Literary Criticism in Horace. Early Study of Virgil and Horace . . . 167 — 185

Chronological Table, i— 300A. D. . . . 186

CHAPTER XL Latin Scholarship from the Augustan Age to 300 A. D. Hyginus. Fenestella. Verrius Flaccus. Palaemon. The two Senecas. Petronius. Persius. Asconius. Pliny the elder. Probus. Quintilian. Tacitus. Pliny the younger. Martial. Juvenal. Statius. Suetonius. Grammarians. Fronto. Gellius. Terentianus Maurus. Pompeius Festus. Aero and Porphyrio. Censorinus ...... 187 — 203

Chronological Table, 300 — 600 A.D. . , . 204

CHAPTER XII. Latin Scholarship from 300 to 500 A.D. Nonius. Ausonius. Paulinus. Symmachus. The Study of Virgil. Victorinus. Aelius Donatus. Charisius and Diomedes. Servius. St Jerome and St Augustine. Macrobius. Martianus Capella. Recensions of Solinus, Vegetius and Pom- ponius Mela ; and abridgement of Valerius Maximus. Apollinaris Sidonius. Schools of learning in Gaul. Grammarians and Commentators. Recension of Virgil by Asterius (494) 205 — 236

CHAPTER XIII. Latin Scholarship from 500 to 530 A.D. Boethius. . Cassiodorus. Benedict and Monte Cassino. Priscian . . 237 — 260

OUTLINE OF PRIN'CIPAL CONTENTS.

BOOK IV. THE ROMAN AGE OF GREEK

SCHOLARSHIP, c. i—c. 530 A. D. . 261—375

Chronological Table, 1 — 300 A.D. . . . 262

CHAPTER XIV. Roman Study of Greek between 164 B.C. and 14A.D. Histories of Rome written by Romans in Greek. The influence of Greek studies on Varro and Cicero ; on Lucretius, Catullus, Cinna and Varro Atacinus ; on Caesar, Nepos and Sallust ; on Virgil, Horace, Gallus, Propertius and Ovid; and on Pompeius Trogus and Li\-y .... 263 — 272

CHAPTER XV. Greek Literary Criticism in the First Century of the Empire. Dionysius of Halicamassus. Caecilius of Calacte. The Treatise on the Sublime 273 — 286

CHAPTER XVI. Verbal Scholarship in the First Century of the Empire. Juba, Pamphilus and Apion. Minor Grammarians . . . 287 — 290

CHAPTER XVII. The Literary Revival at the end of the First Century. Dion Chrysostom. Plutarch. Favorinus . .... 291 — 301

CHAPTER XVIII. Greek Scholarship in the Second Century. Hadrian. Herodes Atticus. M. Aurelius. Arrian and other historians. Philon of Byblus, Phlegon of Tralles and Ptolemaeus Chennus. Pausanias. Literary rhetoricians : — Aristides and Maximus Tyrius ; Lucian and Alciphron. Technical rhetoricians :—Aelius Theon, Hermogenes and Demetrius. Gram- marians : — ApoUonius Dyscolus, Herodian and Nicanor. Lexicc^raphers and ' Atticists': — Phrj-nichus, Moeris, Harpocration and Pollux. Hephaestion. SjTnmachus on Aristophanes. Commentators on Plato. Galen. Sextus Empiricus. Clement of Alexandria ...... 302 — 326

CHAPTER XIX. Greek Scholarship in the Third Century. The Philostrati and Callistratus. Aelian. Athenaeus. Rhetoricians: — Apsines, Minucianus, Menander and Longinus. Diogenes Laertius. Alexander of Aphrodisias. Rise of Neo-PIatonism. Origan. Plotinus and Porphyry. Aristides Quintilianus 327 — 338

Chronological Table, 300 — 600 A.D. . . . 340

CHAPTER XX. Greek Scholarship in the Fourth Century. Eusebius. Dexippus, Himerius, Themistius, Libanius and Julian. Quintus Smymaeus. Theodosius, Ammonius and Helladius 341 — 355

CHAPTER XXI. Greek Scholarship from 400 to 530 a.d. Poets, Historians and Philosophers. Hypatia, Sjmesius and Palladas. Neo- Platonists: — Plutarchus, Hierocles, Syrianus, Proclus, Hermeias, Ammonius and Damascius. The School of Athens closed by Justinian (529). Simplicius and Olympiodoras II. ' Dionysius the Areopagite '. Grammarians, Lexico- graphers, Authors of Chrestomathies and Rhetoricians. Schools of learning in the East. The end of the Roman Age (529) . . . 356 — 375

OUTLINE OF PRINCIPAL CONTENTS.

BOOK V. THE BYZANTINE AGE,

c. 530— f. 1350 A. D. . . . 376-428

Chronological Table, 600 — 1000 A. D. . , . 378

CHAPTER XXII. Byzantine Scholarship from 529 to 1000 A. D.

Period I (529 — 641). Choeroboscus. Stephanus of Alexandria. The Chronicon Paschale and Malalas.

Period II {641 — 850). John of Damascus. Theognostus. The study of Aristotle among the Syrians and Arabians.

Period III (8,50 — 1350). The Classics in the Ninth Century. Photius and Arethas. The encyclopaedias of Constantine Porphyrogenitus. The Anthology of Cephalas. The lexicon of Suidas ..... 379 — 399

Chronological Table, looo — c. 1453 A.D. . . 400 CHAPTER XXIII. Period III continued. Byzantine Scholarship, 1000 — 1350 A.D. and after. Psellus. Commentators on Aristotle. Etymological and other Lexicons. Tzetzes. Theodorus Prodromus. Eustathius. Gregorius Corinthius. The Latin conquest of Constantinople (1204). Constantinople and the West. Scholars under the Palaeologi:— Planudes, Moschopuhis, Thomas Magister, Triclinius and Chrysoloras. Characteristics of Byzantine Scholarship. The Greek Classics in and after Century ix. Their preser- vation in the Byzantine Age. The Turkish conquest of Constantinople (1453) 401—428

BOOK VI. THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE WEST,

c. 530— f. 1350 A.D. . . . 429—650

Chronological Table, 600 — 1000 A.D. . . . 430

CHAPTER XXIV. Gregory the Great. Gregory of Tours. ' Virgilius Maro', the Grammarian. Columban and Bobbio; Gallus and St Gallen. Isidore of Seville. Greek in Spain, Gaul, Italy, and Ireland. Theodore of Tarsus. Aldhelm. Bede. Boniface and Fulda . . . 431 — 454

CHAPTER XXV. Charles the Great and Alcuin. Theodulfus of Orleans. The Irish monks, Clement, Dungal and Donatus. Einhard. Rabanus Maurus. Walafrid Strabo. Servatus Lupus and the Classics. Joannes Scotus. Eric and Remi of Auxerre. The Classics at Pavia, Modena and St Gallen.' 'The monk of Einsiedeln'. Ecclesiastical use of Greek. Hucbald and Abbo 'Cernuus'. Alfred the Great and his translations .......... 455 — 482

CHAPTER XXVI. The Tenth Century. Regino of Priim and Ratherius of Liege. Gesta Berengarii. Odo of Cluni. Bmno. Gunzo. Hroswitha. Hedwig and Ekkehard II. Walther of Speier. Gerbert, Fulbert and Richer. Luitprand. Abbo of Fleury. ^Ifric of Eynsham . . . 483 — 495

OUTLINE OF PRINCIPAL CONTENTS.

Chronological Table, looo— 1200 A.D. . . . 496 CHAPTER XXVII. The Eleventh Century. Chartres, St Evroult and Bee. Bamberg and Paderbom. Lambert of Hersfeld and Adam of Bremen. Notker Labeo and Hermannus ' Contractus '. Anselm of Bisate. Desiderius, Alfanus and Petrus Damiani. Greek in the eleventh century. Greek Lectionary of St Denis. Dudo of St Quentin. Carthusians and

Cistercians 497 — 503

CHAPTER XXVIII. The Twelfth Century. The early Schoolmen and the Classics. The Schciastic Problem ; Realism and Nominalism. Mediaeval knowledge of Plato; and of Aristotle prior to 11 28 A.D. Lanfranc and Anselm. Abelard. Bernard of Chartres, William of Conches, Adelard of Bath, Gilbert de la Porree. Otto of Freising. Theodoric of Chartres. Bernard Silvester of Tours ....... 504 — 516

CHAPTER XXIX. The Twelfth Century continued. John of Salisbury. Peter of Blois. Giraldus Cambrensis. Natives of England, who wrote historical Latin Prose in Centuries Xll — xiv. Latin Verse in Centuries XII — XIII, in Italy, England, France and Germany. Greek in France, Germany, Italy and England ....... 517 — 536

Chronological Table, 1200 — 1400A.D. . . . 538

CHAPTER XXX. The Thirteenth Century. The new Aristotle. Arabian and Jewish exponents of Greek philosophy. Latin translations from the Arabic. Early study of Aristotle in Paris. Alexander of Hales. Edmund Rich. William of Auvergne. Grosseteste. Vincent of Beauvais. Albertus Magnus. Thomas Aquinas. William of Moerbeke . Siger of Brabant. Gilles de Paris. Geoffrey of Waterford ...... 539 — 566

CHAPTER XXXI. The Thirteenth Century and after, (i) Roger Bacon. Raymundus Lullius. Duns Scotus. William Shirwood. William of Ockham. Walter Burley. Bradwardine. Richard of Bury. Buridan. Jean de Jandun. (2) Imerius and Accursius at Bologna; Balbi of Genoa; Petrus of Padua. The teaching of Greek, and the study of the Latin Aristotle, in Paris. Precursors of the Renaissance in Northern Italy. The Latin studies

of Dante 567 — 593

CHAPTER XXXII. The mediaeval copyists and the Classics. Sur^nval of the Latin Classics in France, Germany, Italy and England. Rise of the mediaeval Universities. Sur%-ey of the principal Latin Classics quoted or imitated in the Middle Ages, recorded in mediaeval Catalogues, and preserved in mediaeval Manuscripts. Grammar in the Middle Ages. The study of the mediaeval 'Arts' versus the study of the Classical Authors. The conflict between the grammatical and literary School of Orleans and the logical School of Paris. The Battle of the Seven Arts (c. ii-jo). The prophecy of the author of that poem fulfilled by the birth (in 1304) of Petrarch, the morning-star of the Renaissance ^9^ — 650

Es tu scolaris ? Sum. Quid est scolaris ? Est homo discens virtutes cum solicitudine....Qualis substantia est scolaris 1 Est substantia animata sensiiiva scientiae et virtutum susceptibilis.

From Es tu scolaris?, a. mediaeval catechism of Grammar printed in Babler's Beitrdge (1885), pp. 190 f.

I

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTORY.

The term ' scholar ', in its primary sense a ' learner ', is applied in its secondary sense to one who has learned thoroughly all that ' the school ' can teach him, one Psthoilr" °^ who through his early training and his constant self-culture has attained a certain maturity in precise and accurate knowledge. Thus Shakespeare says of Cardinal Wolsey : — ' he was a scholar, and a ripe and good one'^ The term is specially appHed to one who has attained a high degree of skill in the master)' of language, as where Ruskin says in Sesame and Lilies : — ' the accent, or turn of expression of a single sentence, will at once mark a scholar ". It is often still further limited to one who ' has become familiar with all the very best Greek and Latin authors ',. 'has not only stored his memory with their language and ideas, but has had his judgment formed and his taste corrected by living intimacy wth those ancient wits'^ The true scholar, though in no small measure he necessarily lives in the past, will make it his constant aim to perpetuate the past for the benefit of the present and the future. He ^nll obey the bidding of George Herbert : — ' If studious, copie fair what Time hath blurr'd '^. Even if he has long been in the position of a teacher of others, he will never cease to be a learner himself; his motto will be discendo docebis, docendo disces ; like the ' Clerk ' in Chaucer's Prologue, ' gladly wolde he leme, and gladly teche ' ; as he advances in years, he will still endeavour to say with Solon : — yrjpda-Kw 8' aici iroXXd 8i8acrKd/i,€vos ; and, when he dies, he may well be content if his brother-scholars or his pupils pay him any part, however small, of

1 J7e»ry VIII, iv ii 51. -' p. 24 (1888).

* Donaldson's Ctcusical Scholarship and Classical Learning, 1856, p. 150.

* The Church Porch, xv.

INTRODUCTORY. [CHAP.

the honour paid to a votary of learning by a Robert Browning, and deem him not unworthy of A Grammarian'' s Funeral.

' Scholarship ' may be defined as ' the sum of the mental attainments of a scholar '. It is sometimes identified ' s^ho"arship°^ ^i^'^ * learning ' or ' erudition ' ; but it is often con- trasted with it. Nearly half a century ago this contrast was clearly drawn by two eminent contemporaries at Oxford and Cambridge. ' I maintain,' says Donaldson, ' that not all learned men are accomplished scholars, though any accom- plished scholar may, if he chooses to devote the time to the necessary studies, become a learned nian'\ 'It is not a know- ledge ', writes Mark Pattison, ' but a discipline, that is required ; not science,